Bronze Age Mobile Pastoralists of Central Asia

Steppe societies is a collective name for the Bronze Age (ca. 3500-1200 BC) nomadic and semi-nomadic people of the central Eurasian steppes. Mobile pastoralist groups have lived and herded in western and central Asia for at least 5,000 years, raising horses, cattle, sheep, goats, and yaks. Their borderless lands intersect the modern countries of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Russia, affecting and being affected by complex social systems from China to the Black Sea, the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia. Ecologically, the steppe can be characterized as part prairie, part desert, and part semi-desert, and it extends in Asia from Hungary to the Altai (or Altay) Mountains and the forests in Manchuria. In the northern parts of the steppe range, rich grasslands covered in snow for about a third of the year provide some of the best pasturelands on earth: but in the south are dangerous arid deserts dotted with oases. All of these areas are part of the mobile pastoralists homelands. Ancient History Ancient historical texts from the settled parts of Europe and Asia describe their interactions with steppe people. Most of that admittedly propagandist literature characterizes the Eurasian nomads as fierce, warlike barbarians or noble savages on horseback: for example, the Persians described their battles between the nomads as the war between good and evil. But archaeological studies of the cities and sites of the steppe societies have revealed a far more nuanced definition of the nomad life: and what is revealed is a wide diversity of cultures, languages, and methods of life. The people of the steppes were the builders and maintainers of the vast Silk Road, not to mention the traders who moved countless caravans across the pastoralist and desert landscapes. They domesticated the horse, invented war chariots and also probably the first bowed instruments. But--where did they come from? Traditionally, steppe societies are believed to have been arisen from agricultural societies around the Black Sea, becoming increasingly reliant on domestic cattle, sheep, and horses, and then expanding eastward in response to environmental change and the need for increased pastureages. By the Late Bronze Age (ca 1900-1300 BC), so the story goes, the entire steppe was populated by mobile pastoralists, called by archaeologists Andronovo culture. Spread of Agriculture According to research by Spengler et al. (2014), the mobile Steppe Society herders at Tasbas and Begash were also directly involved in the transmission of information concerning domestic plants and animals from their points of origin into Inner Asia during the early third millennium BC. Evidence for the use of domesticated barley, wheat, and broomcorn millet has been found at these sites, in ritual contexts; Spengler and colleagues argue that these nomadic herders were one of the ways in which these crops moved outside of their domestications: broomcorn from the east; and wheat and barley from the west. Languages of the Steppes First: a reminder: language and linguistic history do not match one-to-one with specific cultural groups. Not all English speakers are English, nor Spanish speakers Spanish: that was true as much in the past as the present. However, there are two linguistic histories that have been used to try to understand the possible origins of the steppe societies: Indo-European and Altaic. According to linguistic research, at its beginnings ca 4500-4000 BC, the Indo-European language was largely confined to the Black Sea region. About 3000 BC, Indo-European language forms spread outside of the Black Sea region into central, southern and western Asia and the northern Mediterranean. Part of that movement must be tied to the migration of people; part of that would have been transmitted by contact and trade. Indo-European is the root language for the Indic speakers of South Asia (Hindi, Urdu, Punjabi), the Iranian languages (Persian, Pashtun, Tajik), and the majority of European languages (English, German, French, Spanish, Portuguese). Altaic was originally located in Southern Siberia, eastern Mongolia, and Manchuria. Its descendants include Turkic languages (Turkish, Uzbeck, Kazakh, Uighur), and Mongolian languages, and possibly (although there is some debate) Korean and Japanese. Both of these linguistic pathways seem to have traced the movement of nomads throughout and across central Asia and back again. However, a recent article by Michael Frachetti argues that this interpretation is too simplistic to match the archaeological evidence of the spread of people and domestication practices. Three Steppe Societies? Frachettis argument lies in his assertion that the domestication of the horse cannot have driven the rise of a single steppe society. Instead, he suggests scholars should look at three separate areas where mobile pastoralism arose, in the western, central and eastern regions of central Asia, and that by the fourth and early third millennia BC, these societies were specialized. Western Steppe: east banks of the Dneiper River to the Ural Mountains and north from the Black Sea (modern countries include parts of Ukraine, Russia; cultures include Cucuteni, Tripolye, Sredny Stog, Khvalynsk, Yamnaya; sites include Moliukhor Bugor, Derievka, Kyzl-khak, Kurpezhe-molla, Kara Khuduk I, Mikhailovka II, Maikop)Central Steppe: east of the Urals to the Altai edge (countries: parts of Kazakstan, Russia, Mongolia; cultures: Botai, Atbasar; sites: Botai)Eastern Steppe: east of the Irysh River to the Yenesei (countries: Russian Siberia, cultures: Afanas’ev (sometimes spelled Afanasievo); sites: Balyktyul, Kara-Tenesh) The sparsity of the archaeological record continues to be an issue: there simply hasnt been a great deal of work focused on the steppes. It is a very large place, and much more work needs to be accomplished. Archaeological Sites Turkmenistan: Altin-Depe, MervRussia: Sintashta, Kyzl-khak, Kara Khuduk, Kurpezhe-molla, Maikop, Ashgabat, GornyUzbekistan: Bukhara, Tashkent, SamarkandChina: TurfanKazakhstan: Botai, Krasnyi Yar, Mukri, Begash, TasbasUkraine: Moliukhor Bugor, Dereivka, Sredny Stog, Mikhailovka Sources This glossary entry is a part of the About.com guide to Human History, and the Dictionary of Archaeology. See page two for a list of resources. Sources This glossary entry is a part of the About.com guide to Human History, and the Dictionary of Archaeology. Frachetti MD. 2012. Multiregional emergence of mobile pastoralism and nonuniform institutional complexity across Eurasia. Current Anthropology 53(1):2. Frachetti MD. 2011. Migration Concepts in Central Eurasian Archaeology. Annual Review of Anthropology 40(1):195-212. Frachetti MD, Spengler RN, Fritz GJ, and Maryashev AN. 2010. Earliest direct evidence for broomcorn millet and wheat in the central Eurasian steppe region. Antiquity 84(326):993–1010. Golden, PB. 2011. Central Asia in World History. Oxford University Press: Oxford. Hanks B. 2010. Archaeology of the Eurasian Steppes and Mongolia. Annual Review of Anthropology 39(1):469-486. Spengler III RN, Cerasetti B, Tengberg M, Cattani M, and Rouse LM. 2014. Agriculturalists and pastoralists: Bronze Age economy of the Murghab alluvial fan, southern Central Asia. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany: in press. doi: 10.1007/s00334-014-0448-0 Spengler III RN, Frachetti M, Doumani P, Rouse L, Cerasetti B, Bullion E, and Maryashev A. 2014. Early agriculture and crop transmission among Bronze Age mobile pastoralists of Central Eurasia. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 281(1783). 10.1098/rspb.2013.3382

Online Anonymity On The Internet - 1880 Words

Introduction Anonymity refers to the state of being unknown to most people, while anonymity on the internet refers to any interaction a user has that protects their identity or personal information from being shared with others online. It is mentioned in a source that anonymity has both its pros and cons, and in some cases may appeal to certain people where it does not appeal to others (Anonymity on the Internet). The issue of online anonymity is becoming increasingly important and ubiquitous in the virtual world as the internet has become a fast-rising necessity in our everyday lives. Recently, online forums and domains that allow users to attain anonymity easily have become increasingly popular. In this paper, we will be exploring why people choose to be anonymous on the internet, the positive and negative consequences of online anonymity and the demographic differences of people who choose to stay anonymous online. Literature Review Why people choose to be anonymous online In a survey on Online Anonymity, they found out that the main reason for online anonymity was to protect one’s personal information and reputation, as well as for the freedom of speech allowed (Global Perspectives on Online Anonymity). This same survey also stated that the older and younger generations have different reasons for being anonymous online. However, the one universal reason was related to the protection of personal information. This point is supported by another source, where 33% ofShow MoreRelated Internet Essay - Online Anonymity and Cyberspace Crime2064 Words   |  9 PagesOnline Anonymity and Cyberspace Crime The 90s internet boom gave rise to new ways of writing in through access to cyberspace. 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Job1 Essay Example For Students

Job1 Essay Although the extent of child abuse is difficult to measure, it is recognized as a major social problem, especially in industrialized nations. It occurs in all income, racial, religious, and ethnic groups and in urban and rural communities. It is, however,more common in some groups, especially those below the poverty line.Cultures around the world have different standards in deciding what constitutes child abuse. In Sweden, for example, the law prohibits any physical punishment of children, including spanking. By contrast, in some countries of Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean, parents are expected to punish their children by hitting them.The most common form of child abuse is neglect. Physical neglect involves a parents failure to provide adequate food, clothing, shelter, or medical care to a child. It may also include inadequate supervision and a consistent failure to protect a child from hazards or danger. Emotional neglect occurs when a parent or caretaker fails to meet a childs bas ic needs for affection and comfort. Examples of emotional neglect include behaving in a cold, distant, and unaffectionate way toward a child, allowing a child to witness chronic or severe spousal abuse, allowing a child to use alcohol or drugs, and encouraging a child to engage in delinquent behavior. Another form of neglect involves failing to meet a childs basic education needs, either by failing to enroll a child in school or by permitting a child to skip school frequently.Stress brought on by a variety of social conditions raises the risk of child abuse within a family. These conditions include unemployment, illness, poor housing conditions, a larger-than-average family size, the presence of a new baby or a disabled person in the home, and the death of a family member. A large majority of reported cases of child abuse come from families living in poverty. Child abuse also occurs in middle-class and wealthy families, but it is better reported among the poor for several reasons. W ealthier families have an easier time hiding abuse because they have less contact with social agencies than poor families. In addition, social workers, physicians, and others who report abuse subjectively label children from poor families as victims of abuse more often than children from rich families. Alcohol and drug use, common among abusive parents, may aggravate stress and stimulate violent behavior. Certain characteristics of children, such as mental retardation or physical or developmental disabilities, can also increase the stress of parenting and the risk of abuse.CRIMEThe public appears much more aware of juvenile crime today than in the pastMost theories of juvenile delinquency have focused on children from disadvantaged families, ignoring the fact that children from affluent homes also commit crimes. The latter may commit crimes because of the lack of adequate parental control, delays in achieving adult status, and hedonistic tendencies. All theories, however, are tentat ive and are subject to criticism.Changes in the American social structure may indirectly affect juvenile crime rates. For example, changes in the economy that lead to fewer job opportunities for youth and rising unemployment in general make gainful employment increasingly difficult for young people to obtain. The resulting discontent may in turn lead more youths into criminal behavior. Bibliography:

Dbq Cultural Interaction Essay Example

Dbq: Cultural Interaction Paper Cultural interaction is the basis for the world today. Without cultural interaction, the Americas would still be filled with Native Americans. The whole world would be isolated from other cultures. For example, America would not have certain foods and animals, such as bananas and cows; likewise, Europe would not have corn or turkeys. Between the years 600 and 1450 C. E, Cultural interaction was very beneficial due to the expanding of trade, spreading of religion and cultures, and strengthening nations.However, in many cases, cultural interaction was a destructive force, killing thousands, taking what people owned, and spreading diseases to other areas. The main reason for culture interaction is to spread ideas and acquire new materials. In some cases, cultural interaction could completely change the trading system in that area (document 2). This document shows how European trade was completely changed after the Crusades. Before the Crusades, Europe’s main trading items were it ems solely made in Europe. This is because of their system of feudalism. After the Crusades they traded a variety of items from other areas, such as China or India.These items include a variety of things, such as silk from China, and spices and cotton from India. In this case, cultural interaction was very beneficial to Europe, bringing in goods and lots of wealth to the area. Not only did the interaction of cultures between 600 and 1450 bring in wealth, it also helped the spread of religion. Between the years of 632 and 750, Islamic lands spread from the Arabian Peninsula as far west as Spain (document 4). By conquering new lands, the ideas and culture of Islam was spread as well. Even today, Muslim culture still heavily influences past Muslim lands such as North Africa.In East Africa, cultural interactions with trade in the Middle East, China, and other areas had large effects in East Africa (document 6). Some of the immediate effects in East Africa from these interactions include â€Å"Thriving commerce†¦ Rise of strong East African city-states†¦ Introduction of crops and animals from Middle East and Asia†. All of these things were very beneficial to this area. By establishing strength in these city-states, East Africa was able to continue trade with these other areas, with methods such as the Indian Ocean. Cultural interactions also played a major role in the spread of ideas.One Arab historian says, â€Å"As regards the Indians, they are among the leaders in astronomy, mathematics – in particular, they have Indian numerals†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (document 7). By being so intrigued by Indian mathematics, Arabs too adopted the Indian numerals. These were later introduced to Europeans, whom called them Arab numerals. This was very beneficial because Indian/Arab numerals are used globally today, and serves almost as a common language. Although cultural interaction was very beneficial, at many times it had a very negative impact. In document 1, the interaction between the Franks and the Arabs during the Crusades led to mass destruction. †¦The Franks slaughtered more than 70,000 people, among them a large number of Imams (religious leaders) and Muslim scholars†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The Franks also stripped the famous mosque, the Dome of the Rock of silver and gold. Excerpted from Arab Historians of the Crusades, this passage exemplifies how terrible this interaction was, and because Arabs wrote it, goes into detail on how much they lost because of the Franks. This Arab writer completely blames the destruction in the Franks, most likely because he is in fact Arab, and even gives the Franks a barbaric image by using words such as ‘slaughtered’.Document 5 also deal with destruction due to people. It was written by Genghis Khan and says â€Å"The greatest joy is to conquer one’s enemies, to pursue them, to seize their belongings, to see their families in tears, to ride their horses. † Because of interact ion between cultures, he was able to do these terrible things. Genghis Khan said this in a time where he was attempting to conquer other lands, and also to motivate his troops to fight, which explains why it seems so harsh and cruel. Nevertheless, this led to a negative effect of destruction and death for the conquered people during this time period.Not only did cultural interaction between people cause destruction, another negative effect due to cultural interaction was disease. The bubonic plague, which originated near China, spread to Europe due to interactions between merchants (document 3). The disease, spread by rats and fleas, ended up killing off approximately one-third of the population. This was due solely because of trading between areas, and ended up having a very negative effect. Even today, cultural interaction can be perceived as positive or negative. Importing and exporting goods can be seen as beneficial; however, wars are generally seen as negative.Between 600 and 1450, cultural interaction had a positive effect in things such as increase in trade, but had a negative effect in things such as the bubonic plague. A document from a merchant from the Middle East would have been helpful because he would have been to many different areas, and show how trade has had a positive or negative effect on those areas. Also, a map of the world that showed products that were gained to certain areas would have been useful. This would clearly show the positive impacts of cultural interaction such as the introduction of new food, but also the negative impacts like the introduction of certain diseases.